Lecture 2.1 developed your skills in comprehending difficult academic and argumentative texts. This lecture now applies those analytical abilities to professional and institutional writing — specifically, the report, which is the most frequently demanded document in Nigerian tertiary institutions and public-sector workplaces.
A report is a structured, factual document prepared by an individual or group and addressed to a specific audience for a defined purpose. Unlike general prose or informal correspondence, a report is commissioned or required — it answers a question, solves a problem, presents findings, or provides information that enables an informed decision (Uwajeh, 2017, p. 112).
Reports are the primary written instrument of professional and institutional life. In engineering, banking, government, medicine, education, and commerce, decisions at every level depend on the accuracy, clarity, and completeness of written reports. Developing the ability to plan, structure, and write an effective report is therefore one of the most transferable skills a tertiary student can acquire.
Three features are common to all reports, regardless of type or length:
Reports are broadly classified along a spectrum from formal to informal. This distinction is not merely about tone or politeness; it reflects fundamental differences in structure, audience, scope, and institutional weight (Ebbe, 2014, p. 57).
Formal reports are comprehensive, carefully structured documents produced for senior audiences, external bodies, or high-stakes institutional decisions. They follow a prescribed format with distinct sections, use impersonal language, and carry official weight.
Informal reports are shorter, less rigidly structured documents intended for internal circulation within an organisation. They retain a professional but accessible tone and are typically produced quickly in response to immediate operational needs.
| Feature | Formal | Informal |
|---|---|---|
| Length | Usually long — multiple sections and pages | Typically short — one to a few pages |
| Language Register | Impersonal, objective, technical | More conversational, still professional |
| Structure | Rigidly prescribed with standard parts | Flexible — depends on organisational norms |
| Audience | External bodies, senior officials, committees | Internal colleagues and supervisors |
| Approval Required | Often signed off at multiple levels | Usually submitted to immediate superior |
| Presentation | Bound, formatted, professionally presented | Typed or handwritten; often sent by email |
Within the formal/informal distinction, reports are further classified by their specific purpose and timing. The four most important categories in academic and professional contexts are periodic reports, special reports, progress reports, and feasibility reports (Uwajeh, 2017, p. 118–124).
A periodic report is produced at regular, scheduled intervals — daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually — to update management or stakeholders on the routine operations of an organisation or department.
Purpose: Monitoring, tracking, and accountability over time.
Examples: Monthly sales figures, quarterly financial statements, annual departmental reviews, academic term reports.
Key feature: Comparability — each edition uses the same format so that data can be compared across periods.
A special report is produced in response to a specific, non-routine situation or event — an accident, an investigation, a policy review, or a one-time need. It is commissioned for a defined purpose and is not repeated.
Purpose: Investigation, problem-solving, or responding to unusual circumstances.
Examples: Accident investigation reports, audit findings reports, policy impact assessment reports.
Key feature: It addresses a unique situation and may result in formal recommendations or institutional decisions.
A progress report documents the current status of an ongoing project or assignment. It informs a supervisor, client, or funding body about what has been accomplished, what remains to be done, and whether the project is on schedule.
Purpose: Updating stakeholders on the stage and health of a project.
Examples: Construction project updates, research progress reports, student project status reports.
Key feature: It typically covers work completed, work in progress, challenges encountered, and the projected timeline for completion.
A feasibility report assesses the viability of a proposed course of action, plan, or project before resources are committed. It examines whether the proposal is technically possible, economically sound, legally permissible, and practically achievable.
Purpose: Decision-making — enabling management to approve, modify, or reject a proposed plan.
Examples: Business startup feasibility studies, government project viability assessments, site development studies.
Key feature: It concludes with a clear recommendation and the evidence supporting it.
A formal report follows a standardised structure that serves both functional and institutional purposes. The structure allows readers to navigate large documents efficiently, locate specific information quickly, and evaluate the report's credibility and completeness (Oshukwu, 2011, p. 94).
The parts of a formal report are typically grouped into three broad phases: preliminary matter, body, and end matter.
Students frequently confuse reports with essays because both are extended written texts produced in academic or professional contexts. However, they serve fundamentally different purposes and observe distinctly different conventions (Cottrell, 2019, p. 211).
| Dimension | Report | Essay |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Purpose | To present factual findings and/or enable decisions | To develop and argue a position or answer a conceptual question |
| Audience | Defined and specific — a named body, authority, or client | General academic audience; usually the lecturer or examiner |
| Structure | Prescribed, sectioned, labelled with formal headings | Continuous prose; introduction, body paragraphs, conclusion |
| Format | Uses numbered sections, tables, bullet points, appendices | Flowing paragraphs; no lists or numbered subdivisions |
| Commission | Commissioned by a specific person, organisation, or event | Set as an academic task or examination question |
| Personal Opinion | Excluded — conclusions must be evidence-based, not personal | The writer's argued position is the central requirement |
| Executive Summary | Often required as a separate section at the start | Not applicable |
| Appendices | Standard feature for supporting data and documents | Rarely used; not a standard feature |
| Tone | Impersonal, neutral, technical | Scholarly but discursive; may use first person |
| Recommendations | Included where actionable decisions are required | Not a feature; the essay argues, not prescribes |
Essay topic: "Discuss the impact of poor sanitation on public health outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa." — Here, the student develops an argument, synthesises scholarly evidence, and presents a sustained analytical position in continuous prose.
Report commission: "Investigate current sanitation conditions in the Agbowo community and recommend interventions to reduce waterborne disease incidence by 30% within two years." — Here, the student gathers primary data, presents findings in organised sections, analyses results objectively, and concludes with specific, costed recommendations addressed to a local authority.
Both documents may cite the same academic literature and require comparable intellectual effort. But they are entirely different in their structure, their relationship to evidence, and their intended outcome.
Read each scenario below. Identify the type of report required, state whether it would be formal or informal, and explain the main section you would expect to find in the body of the report.
The Managing Director of Horizon Holdings Ltd requests a written account submitted every last Friday of the month detailing the volume of sales completed, the total revenue generated, and outstanding customer invoices for the week. What type of report is this?
Answer: This is a Periodic Report — specifically a weekly sales report. Since it is submitted to the Managing Director, it would be formal in tone, though it may be relatively brief in length. The body would prominently feature a Findings/Results section presenting weekly sales data, likely supported by a summary table.
A fire breaks out in the accounts department of a government ministry, destroying several files. The Permanent Secretary directs the Head of Administration to investigate the cause, assess the damage, and recommend measures to prevent a recurrence. What report should be submitted?
Answer: This is a Special Report — specifically an investigative or incident report. It is a formal document addressed to a senior official and produced in response to a non-routine event. The body would include sections on Findings (cause and extent of the fire), Analysis (contributing factors), and Recommendations (fire prevention and data recovery measures).
An ND2 student is working on a six-month entrepreneurship project. Her supervisor requires a written submission every four weeks indicating what has been achieved, what obstacles have been encountered, and what she plans to do before the next submission date.
Answer: This is a Progress Report. It is semi-formal (addressed to a supervisor within an academic institution). The body would typically contain three sections: Work Completed (achievements since the last report), Work in Progress (current activities), and Planned Work (next steps and timeline).
A state government is considering establishing a new polytechnic in a rural local government area. The Commissioner for Education commissions a detailed study examining land availability, student population, infrastructure cost, staffing requirements, and projected economic benefits. What report is needed?
Answer: This is a Feasibility Report. It is highly formal, addressed to a government commissioner, and will inform a major institutional decision. The body must include a thorough Findings section across each dimension studied (land, population, cost, staffing, benefits), followed by Analysis of viability, and a definitive Recommendation — either endorsing, modifying, or rejecting the proposed polytechnic.
State two structural features that would appear in a formal report but not in a standard academic essay.
Answer: Any two of the following are acceptable — (i) a Title Page identifying the author, recipient, and date; (ii) a Table of Contents with page references; (iii) an Executive Summary or Abstract at the start; (iv) a distinct, labelled Recommendations section; (v) Appendices containing supporting data; (vi) a Letter or Memo of Transmittal formally submitting the document.
The following sections of a formal report have been listed out of order. Arrange them in their correct sequence, and for each one, write one sentence explaining what it contains.
Sections to order: Appendices · Findings · Introduction · Abstract · Recommendations · Table of Contents · Conclusions · Discussion · Title Page · Methodology · References · Letter of Transmittal
Correct sequence: 1. Title Page — identifies the report. 2. Letter of Transmittal — formally submits the report. 3. Table of Contents — maps the document. 4. Abstract / Executive Summary — provides a condensed overview. 5. Introduction — establishes context and purpose. 6. Methodology — explains how data were gathered. 7. Findings — presents the data objectively. 8. Discussion — interprets the findings. 9. Conclusions — draws implications. 10. Recommendations — proposes action. 11. References — lists sources cited. 12. Appendices — provides supplementary material.
A report is a purposive, audience-centred, factual document — and mastering its conventions is one of the highest practical returns on a student's investment in written communication. Understanding the distinction between formal and informal reports, being able to identify and produce periodic, special, progress, and feasibility reports, and knowing the correct sequence of a formal report's parts are foundational competencies for tertiary education and professional life alike (Uwajeh, 2017, p. 130).
Just as critically, the student of communication must internalise the fundamental difference between a report and an essay: an essay argues; a report informs and recommends. Confusing the two — submitting an argumentative essay when a structured report is required, or padding a report with abstract theorising when concrete findings are expected — is one of the most costly errors a student or professional writer can make. The conventions exist not as bureaucratic rituals but as precision instruments for delivering the right information to the right people in the right form (Ebbe, 2014, p. 72).
Lecture 2.2 — Types, Purposes, and Structure of Reports
Define the term report as used in professional and academic communication, identifying at least three features that distinguish it from other forms of writing.
[4 marks]
Explain two ways in which a formal report differs from an informal report, using specific examples of each.
[4 marks — 2 each]
State the type of report each of the following represents, and give a one-sentence justification for each answer:
(a) A hospital's monthly record of patient admissions and discharges submitted to the state ministry of health.
(b) A report commissioned after a building collapse to determine the cause and prevent future occurrences.
(c) A fortnightly update submitted to a project sponsor on the construction of a community water borehole.
[6 marks — 2 each]
List five parts that must appear in a full formal report, arranged in their correct order of appearance.
[5 marks — 1 each]
State three differences between a report and an academic essay, using a tabular format in your answer.
[3 marks]
What is a feasibility report? Identify the two questions that every well-written feasibility report must be able to answer by its conclusion.
[3 marks]
Explain the difference between the Findings section and the Discussion section of a formal report. Why is it an error to merge these two sections?
[4 marks]
What is the function of (a) the Abstract and (b) the Appendix in a formal report? For each, identify the type of reader who would benefit most from that section.
[4 marks — 2 each]
A student in your class argues: "A report is basically just a long essay with headings — once you can write an essay, you can write a report." Write a well-developed paragraph of approximately 150 words correcting this misconception, using specific structural and purposive differences to support your argument.
[5 marks]
You have been asked by your Head of Department to write a progress report on your final-year project. (a) Identify the three main sections that must appear in the body of this progress report. (b) Write a brief model version of each section in no more than two sentences each, making reasonable assumptions about the nature of your project.
[5 marks]
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