📖 Chapter Contents
- Section 1: Introduction to Writing for Publication
- Section 2: Essay Writing and Structure
- Section 3: Thesis Development and Argumentation
- Section 4: Supporting Evidence and Research
- Section 5: Article Writing and Journalism
- Section 6: Feature Writing and Creative Nonfiction
- Section 7: Opinion Pieces and Editorial Writing
- Section 8: Editing and Revision Techniques
- Section 9: Publishing and Submission Process
- Section 10: Citation and Credibility
Learning Objectives
By completing this chapter, you will be able to:
- Understand essay structure and organization principles
- Develop clear, compelling thesis statements
- Build effective arguments with supporting evidence
- Write articles and feature stories for publication
- Master editorial and opinion writing techniques
- Edit and revise writing effectively
- Navigate the publishing and submission process
- Understand citation standards and credibility
- Analyze published essays and articles
- Evaluate writing quality and effectiveness
Section 1 Introduction to Writing for Publication
Purpose and Audience
Writing for publication differs fundamentally from academic writing or personal writing. Published writing must engage a specific audience, maintain reader interest, and deliver clear value (Murray, 2014). Understanding your audience is the first step in publication writing.
Characteristics of Published Writing
Effective published writing is clear, engaging, and purposeful (Trimble, 2000). It must grab attention, maintain interest, and deliver on its promise. Structure is invisible but essential; readers should follow your ideas easily without noticing the scaffolding.
Section 2 Essay Writing and Structure
The Essay Form
Essays are organized arguments on a specific topic. Academic essays, personal essays, and editorial essays share common structural elements: introduction, body development, and conclusion (Turabian, 2013). However, each type adapts this structure for its purpose and audience.
Essay Introductions
Effective introductions capture attention, establish context, and preview the essay's main argument (Murray, 2014). They should begin with something specific and compelling—an anecdote, surprising statistic, or provocative question—before narrowing to the thesis.
Body Development
Body paragraphs develop the thesis with evidence, examples, and analysis (King, 2000). Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence that relates to the thesis. Transition between paragraphs should be smooth, showing how each idea builds on previous ones.
Essay Conclusions
Conclusions should synthesize ideas and provide closure rather than simply restating the thesis (Trimble, 2000). Strong conclusions often end with broader implications, unresolved questions, or calls to action that leave readers thinking.
Section 3 Thesis Development and Argumentation
What Is a Thesis Statement?
A thesis statement is the single sentence, occasionally two, that announces the central claim of a piece of writing (Booth et al., 2011). It tells the reader exactly what the writer intends to prove, explain, or argue, and it sets the boundary of everything that follows. In a well-constructed essay or article, every paragraph serves the thesis in some way: explaining it, supporting it with evidence, or defending it against objections. Without a clear thesis, a piece of writing has no spine; it may contain interesting sentences, but the reader is left guessing what the writer is actually trying to prove.
Qualities of a Strong Thesis
A strong thesis is specific rather than vague, arguable rather than merely factual, and narrow enough to be fully defended within the space available (Trimble, 2000). A thesis that simply restates a known fact gives the writer nothing left to prove. A thesis that tries to cover too much ground forces shallow treatment of every point it touches. The best theses take a clear position that a reasonable reader could disagree with, which is exactly what makes the argument that follows worth reading.
❌ Weak: "Insecurity is a problem in Nigeria."
✓ Strong: "Until state governments fund and properly equip community policing outfits, kidnapping and cult violence will continue to spread across the South West."
❌ Weak: "Corruption exists in government offices."
✓ Strong: "Petty corruption among junior civil servants, sustained by weak supervision and entrenched nepotism, does more daily damage to ordinary citizens than the high-profile corruption that dominates the headlines."
Building an Argument from a Thesis
Once a thesis is set, the writer's task is to build a case for it, paragraph by paragraph. Each body paragraph should advance a single sub-claim that supports the thesis, back that sub-claim with evidence such as statistics, examples, testimony, or documented cases, and explain how the evidence proves the point (Toulmin et al., 1979). This claim–evidence–explanation pattern, repeated across paragraphs, is what gives an argumentative piece its forward momentum. A reader should feel the case getting stronger with every paragraph, not simply encounter the same point restated in different words.
Acknowledging Counterarguments
Mature argumentation does not pretend opposing views do not exist. Strong writers raise the most obvious objection to their thesis and answer it directly, which signals to readers that the writer has thought the issue through rather than simply asserting a position (Williams & Bizup, 2014). Writing that never engages an opposing view often reads as one-sided rather than genuinely persuasive.
From Theory to Practice
The two sample articles below show how a thesis is established in an introduction and then carried through a sequence of body paragraphs before being drawn together in a conclusion. Read each article first for its content, then study the analysis box that follows it, which identifies exactly where the thesis appears, what each paragraph contributes to the argument, and which specific lines do the work of building the case.
Sample Article 1: Insecurity in the South West — Kidnapping and Cultism on the Rise
On a quiet Tuesday afternoon in March, a commercial bus travelling from Ibadan to Ile-Ife was stopped along the expressway by armed men who marched seventeen passengers into the bush; their families spent two weeks raising ransom money before they returned home. Scenes like this have become familiar across Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo and Ekiti States, where kidnapping for ransom and cult violence have spread from isolated incidents into a regular feature of daily life. Unless governments, traditional rulers and security agencies act together with urgency, the South West risks losing the calm it was once known for.
Kidnapping in the region no longer targets only the wealthy. Farmers are seized from their farmlands, schoolchildren have been taken from hostels, and traders are dragged from buses in broad daylight. Forest reserves that once sheltered timber smugglers now hide armed camps used to hold victims for weeks. Ransom demands, once a few hundred thousand naira, now regularly run into millions, leaving many families with nothing but the hope that their relatives will eventually return alive.
Alongside kidnapping, cult violence has resurfaced with disturbing intensity. Secret confraternities, long associated with universities, have extended into secondary schools and communities where rival groups now clash openly over turf and influence. Initiation rites involving violence against new recruits have left young people maimed or dead, while reprisal attacks between rival cults have turned residential streets into battlegrounds. Many parents now live in quiet fear that their teenage sons may already have been drawn into a cult.
Several factors feed this crisis. Years of youth unemployment have left many young men with few legitimate paths to income, making quick cash from kidnapping or cult activity dangerously attractive. Community and forest policing remain underfunded, leaving farmland and bush roads unpatrolled. Illegal firearms, smuggled through porous routes, have armed criminal gangs more heavily than local police can match, while political patronage of cult groups during elections has, in many communities, given cultists a sense of protection from consequences.
The toll on ordinary life is severe. Traders close shops before dusk rather than travel home after dark. Farmers abandon distant farmland for fear of attack, shrinking the food reaching local markets. Schools in high-risk areas have shortened their hours, and some boarding schools have suspended hostel accommodation entirely. Families who have lost relatives to kidnapping or cult violence carry lasting psychological trauma, and the atmosphere of fear has begun to discourage the small business activity that once made South West towns lively trading centres.
Reversing this trend requires more than occasional security raids. State governments must fund and equip community security outfits such as the Amotekun corps, invest in intelligence-led policing of forest corridors, and create real economic opportunities for young people vulnerable to recruitment. Traditional and religious leaders should report cult activity early, while courts must ensure arrested kidnappers and cult leaders face swift prosecution. Until these steps are taken seriously, the South West will continue to pay an unacceptable price in stolen peace and stolen lives.
📌 Thesis Statement
"Unless governments, traditional rulers and security agencies act together with urgency, the South West risks losing the calm it was once known for."
This sentence closes Paragraph 1. It commits the writer to a specific, arguable claim: action by three named groups is necessary, and the consequence of inaction is named. Everything that follows must serve this claim.
📖 Introduction (Paragraph 1)
The article opens with a specific, dramatic anecdote, the abduction of seventeen bus passengers, rather than a general statement about insecurity. This is a classic publication-writing technique: start narrow and concrete, then widen out. The paragraph names the affected states, identifies the two problems (kidnapping and cultism), and ends on the thesis.
🧱 Body — Where the Argument Is Built (Paragraphs 2–5)
Paragraph 2 builds the kidnapping sub-claim with escalation evidence: "Ransom demands, once a few hundred thousand naira, now regularly run into millions." The before-and-after contrast is the argumentative engine of this line; it proves the problem is getting worse, not just present.
Paragraph 3 builds the cultism sub-claim with severity evidence: "Initiation rites involving violence against new recruits have left young people maimed or dead." This line moves cultism from an abstract label to a concrete, consequential harm.
Paragraph 4 supplies causal reasoning, the "why" behind the thesis: "political patronage of cult groups during elections has, in many communities, given cultists a sense of protection from consequences." Identifying a cause is what allows the conclusion to recommend specific, targeted solutions rather than vague calls for "more security."
Paragraph 5 supplies the stakes, what happens if nothing changes: "the atmosphere of fear has begun to discourage the small business activity that once made South West towns lively trading centres." This line converts the thesis's urgency ("risks losing the calm") into a tangible economic consequence.
🔚 Conclusion (Paragraph 6)
The conclusion does not simply repeat the thesis; it translates it into named, specific actions (funding Amotekun, intelligence-led policing, swift prosecution) directed at the same three groups named in the thesis, then closes with a consequence-based final line that echoes the opening sentence's warning.
Sample Article 2: Petty Corruption and Nepotism in the Civil Service
Mrs. Eno Bassey arrived at the local government secretariat at eight in the morning to collect her late husband's pension file, certain the paperwork she had submitted three months earlier would be ready. The clerk at the counter, a young man named Effiong Okon, told her the file could not be found and that she should "come back next week." It was only after a sympathetic security guard quietly advised her to "drop something small" for the clerk that the same file, supposedly lost, reappeared within the hour. Mrs. Bassey's experience repeats itself daily in government offices across the country, where it is not the politicians signing multi-billion naira contracts who frustrate ordinary citizens most, but the subordinate officers who control access to ordinary, everyday services. This article argues that petty corruption among junior civil servants, sustained by weak supervision and entrenched nepotism, inflicts more daily damage on ordinary Nigerians than the high-profile corruption that dominates the headlines.
The deliberate hiding of files has become an open secret in many government offices. Documents that should move from desk to desk within days instead disappear into drawers, only to resurface once a "facilitation fee" changes hands. Citizens seeking land documents, certificates of occupancy, business permits, or pension records quickly learn that the fastest route through the bureaucracy is not patience but payment. Junior officers who control the physical movement of paper files wield disproportionate power over people who often cannot afford to wait, let alone pay a bribe on top of the legitimate fees they have already paid.
Equally damaging is the culture of lateness and unexplained absence that has settled into many public offices. It is common to find counters unattended until midmorning, and entire units where one or two officers do the work of five while colleagues are "on ground" only in name. Some workers vanish for weeks at a stretch, attending to private business, farms, or trading activities, yet appear without fail at the end of the month to collect a full salary. Because internal supervision is weak and disciplinary procedures are slow and rarely enforced, there is little cost to this behaviour, and the citizens who depend on these offices simply absorb the delay.
Perhaps the most corrosive practice is nepotism in appointments that should be decided strictly on merit. Mr. Asuquo Edet had served in a state ministry for fifteen years, passed every promotion examination, and was next in line for a substantive headship when a single phone call from a permanent secretary's office changed everything. The position went instead to a young relative of a senior government official, someone with far less experience and no record of the years of quiet, honest work that Mr. Edet had put in. Stories like his are common across ministries, parastatals and local government councils, where a call from "above" can override a published shortlist overnight, leaving qualified but unconnected applicants, often the poorest and least politically linked, permanently shut out of opportunities they had rightfully earned.
These practices persist for identifiable reasons. Civil service salaries, particularly at junior levels, remain low relative to the cost of living, and some officers rationalise bribery as a necessary top-up. Supervisory structures are weak, with many heads of department reluctant to discipline subordinates who are protected by union solidarity or by personal connections to political office holders. A culture of impunity has also developed, where everyone from the file clerk to the appointing authority understands that consequences for petty corruption and nepotism are rare and, when they occur, mild.
The cumulative effect on ordinary citizens is heavy. Widows wait months for pensions they urgently need. Small business owners pay informal "tips" on top of legitimate registration fees just to keep their applications moving. Honest, hardworking civil servants who refuse to participate in these practices watch less qualified or less diligent colleagues rewarded instead, which steadily erodes morale and pushes some of the most capable officers to disengage or seek opportunities elsewhere. Public trust in government institutions, already fragile, weakens further with every file that goes missing and every appointment that bypasses merit.
Tackling this problem requires action below the level usually targeted by anti-corruption agencies, which tend to focus on large contracts and senior officials rather than the counter-level corruption that affects citizens most directly. Digitising file management and tracking systems would remove much of the discretion that allows files to "disappear." Biometric attendance systems, properly enforced, would address chronic lateness and absenteeism. Appointments and promotions should be decided by transparent boards working from published criteria, with any external interference in the process formally recorded and investigated. Whistleblower protections for junior officers who report these practices would also help break the silence that currently shields offenders.
In conclusion, the quiet, everyday corruption carried out by subordinate officers, hidden files, demanded tips, chronic absenteeism rewarded with full pay, and appointments decided by phone calls rather than merit, does as much harm to ordinary Nigerians as any single high-profile scandal, because it touches almost every citizen who has ever needed a government service. Until supervision is strengthened, processes are digitised, and merit is genuinely protected from political interference, the poor and the unconnected will continue to pay the heaviest price for a public service that should exist to serve them.
📌 Thesis Statement
"Petty corruption among junior civil servants, sustained by weak supervision and entrenched nepotism, inflicts more daily damage on ordinary Nigerians than the high-profile corruption that dominates the headlines."
This is the final sentence of Paragraph 1. It makes a comparative, arguable claim, that "small" corruption matters more, daily, than "big" corruption, which the rest of the article must defend.
📖 Introduction (Paragraph 1)
As in Article 1, the introduction opens with a single, specific anecdote (Mrs. Bassey's missing pension file) rather than a general claim about corruption. The anecdote is immediately generalised ("Mrs. Bassey's experience repeats itself daily...") before the paragraph narrows to the thesis in its final sentence.
🧱 Body — Where the Argument Is Built (Paragraphs 2–7)
Paragraph 2 (hidden files) supplies the mechanism behind the bribe: "Documents that should move from desk to desk within days instead disappear into drawers, only to resurface once a 'facilitation fee' changes hands."
Paragraph 3 (lateness and absenteeism) supplies the contrast that makes the practice an injustice: "Some workers vanish for weeks at a stretch... yet appear without fail at the end of the month to collect a full salary."
Paragraph 4 (nepotism) supplies a single, detailed case rather than a general accusation: "a single phone call from a permanent secretary's office changed everything," and generalises it with "a call from 'above' can override a published shortlist overnight." A named, specific example is far more persuasive than an unsupported claim that "nepotism happens."
Paragraph 5 supplies the causal reasoning required by any strong argument: "everyone from the file clerk to the appointing authority understands that consequences... are rare and, when they occur, mild."
Paragraphs 6 and 7 supply, respectively, the consequences ("Honest, hardworking civil servants... watch less qualified or less diligent colleagues rewarded instead") and the proposed remedies, directly tying the argument back to practical, actionable solutions rather than leaving the reader only with the problem.
🔚 Conclusion (Paragraph 8)
The conclusion restates the thesis almost word for word, "does as much harm to ordinary Nigerians as any single high-profile scandal", after the evidence has been presented, which is a deliberate technique: a thesis repeated at the end lands differently once it has been proven than it did as an opening claim. The final sentence then issues a direct call to action aimed at "the poor and the unconnected," tying the conclusion back to the human cost shown in the introduction.
Section 4 Supporting Evidence and Research
Types of Evidence
Effective writing uses multiple types of evidence: facts and statistics, examples and case studies, expert testimony, and logical reasoning (Murray, 2014). Evidence must be relevant, current, and from credible sources.
Research Ethics
All sources must be properly attributed. Plagiarism—using others' words or ideas without attribution—is both unethical and harmful to your credibility (Turabian, 2013). Even paraphrasing requires citation.
Section 5 Article Writing and Journalism
Defining Article Writing
An article is a piece of non-fiction prose written for publication in a newspaper, magazine, website, or journal, intended to inform, explain, persuade, or entertain a defined readership within a limited word count (Murray, 2014). Article writing differs from essay writing in one important respect: while an essay is built primarily around an argument, an article is built around its venue and its audience. The same subject can produce very different articles depending on whether it is written for a national newspaper, a trade magazine, or a community newsletter, because each venue has its own house style, word limit, and reader expectations.
Major Types of Articles
News articles report a recent event factually and as objectively as possible, using the inverted pyramid structure: the most important information comes first, with supporting detail following in descending order of importance (Harrower, 2012). For example: "Lagos State Government on Monday shut down three private hospitals in Ikeja over unlicensed operations, the Commissioner for Health announced at a press briefing." The who, what, when, and where are answered in a single opening sentence.
Feature articles explore a topic, place, or person in greater depth than a news report allows, often built around narrative and human interest rather than a single news event (treated in detail in Section 6). Opinion and editorial articles argue a position on a current issue, supported by evidence and reasoning rather than simple assertion (treated in detail in Section 7). Analytical or explainer articles break down a complex issue for general readers, using examples, data, and expert comment to answer not just what happened but why it matters: for example, an explainer titled "Why a Naira Devaluation Pushes Up the Price of Bread" would trace the chain from currency value, to import costs, to bakery prices. Profile articles focus on a single person, organisation, or institution, combining biographical detail, direct quotation, and scene-setting description to build a rounded portrait.
Structure of a Publishable Article
Most publishable articles share a common skeleton, even though the genres above use it differently. The headline must be accurate, specific, and engaging while fitting the publication's spatial constraints (Keeble, 2005); it should summarise the article's most important element and entice the reader to continue. The lead or opening, usually one to three sentences, either states the most important fact (news) or hooks the reader with a scene, question, or anecdote (feature, opinion, analysis). The body develops the article with evidence, quotations, and context arranged in a logical order suited to the genre. The closing varies by genre: news articles often end on a forward-looking detail or quote rather than a formal conclusion, while feature, opinion, and analytical articles typically close with a deliberate, reflective line that answers or echoes the opening.
News lead: "Fuel pump prices rose by twelve percent across major filling stations in Lagos on Monday, barely a week after the previous adjustment."
Analytical lead: "Every time fuel prices rise in Nigeria, the effect rarely stops at the filling station; it ripples outward into transport fares, food prices, and the cost of doing business. Understanding why requires looking at how deeply fuel powers the rest of the economy."
Characteristics of Effective Article Writing
Across all genres, strong article writing shares certain qualities: clarity and economy of language, so that no sentence requires a second reading; accuracy and verification of every fact and figure before publication (Turabian, 2013); balance and fairness, particularly in news and analytical writing, where multiple sides of an issue should be represented; and a register pitched correctly for the intended audience, whether that audience is a general newspaper readership or specialists reading a trade journal. A well-written article also respects the reader's time: it delivers its value early and does not pad its length simply to fill space.
Section 6 Feature Writing and Creative Nonfiction
Defining Feature Writing
Feature writing is a form of published nonfiction that moves beyond the bare facts of an event to explore its human, social, or cultural significance at greater depth and length than a standard news article allows (Harrower, 2012). Where a news article answers what happened, a feature typically answers why it matters and what it felt like. A feature is usually built around a central character, scene, or theme rather than a single news event, and it is not bound to the strict timeliness that drives news; a good feature can be published days, weeks, or even months after the events that inspired it.
Common Types of Feature Articles
Several recognisable sub-genres fall under feature writing. A human-interest feature centres on one individual's personal story to illuminate a wider issue, for example, profiling a single street vendor to explore the informal economy as a whole. A profile feature offers an in-depth portrait of a notable person, organisation, or institution. A trend or issue feature examines a social, cultural, or economic pattern by drawing on multiple examples and voices rather than one story alone. A behind-the-scenes feature takes readers into a process or place not normally open to the public, such as a market's pre-dawn supply chain. A seasonal or occasion feature is tied to a recurring date, such as a piece on Sallah preparations or the end-of-year market rush.
Core Techniques of Feature Writing
Feature writers rely on a distinct toolkit. A narrative or scene-setting opening replaces the summary lead used in news, drawing the reader into a moment rather than announcing the topic outright. Dialogue and direct quotation bring characters alive on the page in their own words. Sensory and descriptive detail lets readers see, hear, and feel the setting rather than simply being told about it. A deliberate narrative arc, tension, development, and resolution, even within a true story, gives the piece forward motion. Finally, an effective feature closes with a considered, often reflective final line that echoes or answers its opening, rather than simply trailing off.
Defining Creative Nonfiction
Creative nonfiction, sometimes called literary journalism or narrative nonfiction, is writing that applies the techniques of fiction and poetry, scene construction, character development, dialogue, figurative language, and narrative structure, to factual, real-world subject matter, without inventing or altering the underlying facts (Miller & Spellmeyer, 2006). The defining tension in creative nonfiction is between craft and accuracy: the writer has wide freedom in how to tell a true story, but no freedom to change what actually happened. The goal, as in all serious nonfiction, is truth told artfully rather than artistry used to disguise or distort the truth (King, 2000).
Major Forms of Creative Nonfiction
The category covers several distinct forms. A personal essay is a reflective, first-person exploration of a single experience or idea. A memoir is an extended first-person narrative drawn from a defined period or thread of the writer's own life. Literary or narrative journalism applies scene, character, and narrative technique to long-form reportage while remaining rigorously fact-checked, the kind of in-depth magazine reportage that reads almost like a short story but is fully sourced. A lyric essay blends essayistic reflection with the compression and association more typical of poetry.
Feature Writing vs. Creative Nonfiction
The two terms overlap heavily but are not identical. Most magazine and newspaper feature articles are themselves a form of creative nonfiction, since they apply literary technique to factual reporting within the constraints of a publication. Creative nonfiction, however, is the broader category, it also includes book-length memoir and personal essay never intended for periodical publication at all. The rule that holds across both is the same: factual accuracy is never sacrificed for narrative effect (King, 2000).
Section 7 Opinion Pieces and Editorial Writing
Op-Ed Writing
Op-eds are argumentative pieces that express author opinions on current issues (Keeble, 2005). Unlike news articles, they advocate for a position. They should be timely, relevant, and supported by evidence even though they express opinion.
Logical Fallacies to Avoid
Opinion writing must avoid common logical errors: ad hominem attacks (attacking the person rather than the argument), straw man arguments (misrepresenting opposing positions), and circular reasoning (Booth et al., 2011). Strong opinion writing defeats opposing arguments with evidence, not dismissal.
Section 8 Editing and Revision Techniques
The Revision Process
Professional writers revise extensively, often more than they initially write (King, 2000). Revision is not proofreading; it involves reconsidering argument, rearranging ideas, and cutting unnecessary material.
Self-Editing Strategies
Effective self-editing involves reading aloud to catch awkward phrasing, checking that each paragraph has a clear purpose, and ensuring transitions connect ideas logically (Murray, 2014). Getting feedback from others reveals what readers actually understand versus what you intended.
Section 9 Publishing and Submission Process
Choosing Publication Venues
Research potential publications thoroughly before submitting (Trimble, 2000). Understand their audience, typical article length, writing style, and submission process. Submitting appropriate work to appropriate venues dramatically increases acceptance chances.
Query Letters and Pitches
Query letters pitch article ideas to editors before writing (Murray, 2014). A strong query is brief (usually one page), demonstrates why the topic is timely, and shows why you're qualified to write it.
Section 10 Citation and Credibility
Citation Styles
Different disciplines use different citation formats: MLA for humanities, APA for social sciences, Chicago for history and some humanities (Turabian, 2013). Know which style your publication uses and apply it consistently.
Building Credibility
Credibility comes from accurate information, proper citation, acknowledging limitations, and representing opposing views fairly (Booth et al., 2011). Readers trust writers who are transparent about their sources and honest about what they don't know.
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Answer all 11 questions. Total marks: 225
Explain the differences between academic writing, personal writing, and writing for publication.
Describe the essential components of an effective essay and explain how they work together to create a complete argument.
Write three thesis statements on a topic of your choice: one weak thesis and two strong theses. Explain what makes the strong ones effective.
Discuss types of evidence and explain how to integrate evidence effectively into your writing while maintaining credibility.
Explain the inverted pyramid structure used in journalism and discuss its advantages and limitations.
Write a feature article headline and opening paragraph on a topic of your choice, using techniques to engage readers.
Identify three logical fallacies and explain why they weaken arguments in opinion writing.
Describe an effective revision process, including specific techniques for improving your writing after the first draft.
Write a query letter pitching an article idea to a publication of your choice.
Explain different citation styles and discuss when each is appropriate. Provide examples in at least two formats.
Choose any type of published writing (essay, article, opinion piece, or feature story). Using 15 specialized terms from publication writing register, write a coherent 2-3 sentence example. Underline all specialized terms and provide an in-text citation.